China’s May Fourth Movement: New Narratives and Perspectives

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DOI: 10.4324/9781003362470-19

THE NEW CULTURE MOVEMENT

AND HUAJU*

From an Art Form to an Agent of Change

Nishit Kumar

China has had a long history of artistic and literary heritage, and it witnessed the

emergence of a new operatic tradition at the dawn of the twentieth century. This

new form emerged to counter the old forms in order to fulfil the need of the then

socio- political situation. This new form was a product of the hard work, sustained

struggles, and creativity of reform- minded Chinese intellectuals, and it was later

termed as ‘huaju’ (话剧) or spoken drama. By the end of the nineteenth century,

Chinese people led by the intellectuals were in search of a new model of gov-

ernance. There was a call for a thorough reform of Chinese society and culture,

aimed at improving Chinese people’s livelihoods and establishing a democratic

system of governance. This call for socio- cultural and political changes was also

reflected in changes in the existing cultural formations of China and gave rise to

new formations such as huaju. Huaju had realistic spoken dialogue instead of the

poetic dialogues that were sung in the traditional dramatic form. In ‘huaju’, hua (话)

stands for ‘spoken language’ and ju (剧) means ‘drama’.

The political situation in China at the end of the nineteenth century was largely

responsible for the emergence of huaju. The Chinese defeat in the Sino- Japanese

War of 18951 shook the Chinese. Chinese scholars and statesmen realised that the

key to Japan’s success lay in the adoption of Western science, technology, and ideas.

It became clear to the Chinese that to defeat Japan they too had to adopt Western

knowledge and ideas. This was the time when Chinese dramatists also tried to

incorporate Western ideas into their performances. The reform- minded dramatists

felt that the need of the hour was to create a theatrical form that was not as complex

as traditional operas and could appeal to common people. Huaju was developed by

* Huaju is often referred to as spoken drama or speech drama. It was inspired by the genre of Japanese

heroic plays, which was advocated by Sudo Sadanori and was linked to the reform movement in Japan.

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importing Western theatrical practices and fusing them with the traditional Chinese

form. It was introduced by reformers, educationists, and intellectuals who were dis-

satisfied with traditional theatre’s inability to depict social reality. Chinese dramatists

were influenced by the fundamental Western concept that everyone is born equal

and used it as an argument against the Confucian tradition. The issues of national

identity and resistance to oppression became the central themes in huaju in its ini-

tial stage. Subsequently, political events gave rise to several other themes that were

of great importance in the history of both China and huaju. Scholars such as田本

相 (Tian Benxiang) and宋宝珍 (Song Baozhen) have argued that huaju was a new

theatrical genre in China that was born under the influence of Western drama and

began as a marginal cultural activity in the early years of the century (Benxiang本

相 and Baozhen宝珍 2013: 21).

Development of Huaju

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels analysed the origin, essence, development, social

role, growth, and downfall of any art form based on a materialistic conception of

history. They had a utilitarian view of art and literature (Mitra 2005). They studied

art and literature in the context of man’s social interaction and social consciousness.

According to Marx and Engels, art is a form of social consciousness. They showed

that in a class society, art was influenced by class contradictions and by the politics

and ideologies of particular classes (Mitra 2005). In short, the study reported here is

based on a Marxist framework and proposes the following:

1. Literature and art forms emerging at a given point in history and in a given

socio- economic condition are unique and not found at any other point of

time in history.

2. Literature and art have the ability to change the socio- political situation of a

society from which they have emerged.

3. In a society with distinct classes, literature and art can be used as a tool to bring

change to the struggle between classes (Mitra 2005).

Some Chinese students staged the very first huaju in Tokyo in February 1907

to raise funds for flood victims and refugees in China (会林 Huilin 2009: 4). These

students organised themselves into Chūn liǔ shè 春柳社 (Spring Willow Society),

which performed the third act of Alexandre Dumas fils’s The Lady with the Camellias

(Cháhuā nǚ 茶花女). In June 1907, the Spring Willow Society staged Hēi nú yū

tiān lǜ 黑奴吁天绿 (The Black Slave Cries Out to Heaven). It was an adaptation

of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin. This five- act drama was the

first complete adaptation written by Chinese dramatists into the huaju form (Chen

2014: 3). The play was realistic in content as it reflected the rebellious spirit of the

oppressed people.

The division of the play into acts, telling the story with dialogues, and the true-

to- life stage characters confirmed the birth of spoken drama. The first professional

spoken drama troupe of China was jinhua tuan 进化团 (The Evolution Club) (淑

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The New Culture Movement and Huaju 219

安 Shu’an 2011: 15). It was established by 任天知 (Ren Tianzhi) in December

1910. He closely analysed the ‘heroic play’2 during his stay in Japan. The Evolution

Club, his drama troupe, performed in 10 cities during the 1911 Revolution.3 He

attacked the feudal government through his plays such as Xuè suōyī血蓑衣 (Bloody

Coir Raincoat) and Ān zhònggēn cì téng安重根刺藤 (An Jung- geun Assassinating

Hirobhumi). Other plays written by him were Dōngyà fēngyún东亚风云 (Situation

of East Asia), Huángjīn chì xiě黄金赤血 (Golden Blood), Gònghé wànsuì共和万岁

(Long Live the Republic), Huáng hè lóu黄鹤楼 (Yellow Tower), etc. These spoken

dramas were either comedies or showcased the social reality and expressed the

feelings of the masses.

Over a short period of time, spoken drama lured the new generation. There

was a rapid increase in the production and performance of huaju. There were

six huaju troupes operating in Shanghai in 1914, Xīn mín新民 (New People

Drama Troupe), Mín míng民鸣 (People’s Voice Drama Troupe), Qǐ mín启民

(Awaken People Drama Troupe), Kāi míng开明 (Enlightenment Drama Troupe),

Wén míng文明 (Civilised Huaju Troupe), and Chūn liǔ春柳 (Spring Willow

Society). These six troupes were together called Xīn jù gōnghuì新剧公会

(Association of New Drama). Zhang Baoling established Nánkāi xīn jùtuán 南

开新剧团 (The Nankai New Drama Troupe) on 17 November 1914 in Tianjin.

This troupe staged translated Western plays such as The Inspector (Xún àn巡按) by

Nikolai Gogol, Nora (Nà lā娜拉) and An Enemy of the People (Guómín gōngdí 国

民公敌) by Ibsen, and The Miser (Cái kuáng财狂) by Moliere, and also adapted

old Chinese novels like Chóu dàniáng仇大娘 (Aunt Qiu). In October 1915,

Nánkāi jùtuán南开剧团 (Nankai Drama Troupe) staged Yīyuán qián一元钱 (A

Penny), which exposed the poisonous character of old tradition and customs

and propagated reformist ideas for society. In the same year, the troupe staged 新

少年 (New Youth), with a plot revolving around the contribution of the youth

in nation building. 一念差 (Read a Difference) was staged in 1916 and was

about anti- feudalism. In three years over 1915– 1917, it staged plays like Yīyuán

qián一元钱 (A Penny), Yīniàn Chà一念差 (A Momentary Slip), Xīncūn zhèng新

村正 (New Village), Ēnyuàn yuán恩怨缘 (Karma’s Fate), Qiānjīn quán dé千金全

德 (Moral of Money), Huá é chuán华娥传 (Biography of Hua E), and Xǐng醒

(Wake Up).These plays adopted Western realistic methods to reflect social issues.

In style, they pursued reality and spontaneity. This troupe followed scripts and

rehearsals instead of performing spontaneously.

The Second Revolution4 led by Sun Yat- sen (孙中山) failed in 1913. Yuan

Shikai (袁世凯) assumed power and tried to bring back autocratic rule. Old

thoughts and old culture made a comeback. Yuan Shikai discriminated against those

who held different views and made them hostile. During the rule of Yuan’s gov-

ernment, huaju, which once had a short golden period, gradually tended towards

decline. The oppressive government made the dramatists’ lives more difficult. Due

to such pressure, some dramatists started catering to social vulgarity to earn their

living. In the second half of 1913, silence reigned among the theatrical circles of

Shanghai. After that, some drama troupes like New People Drama Troupe, People’s

Voice Drama Troupe, and Awaken People Drama Troupe tried to find alternative

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ways to perform and hold their foot. However, other troupes left out ideas of social

change and new thoughts in their performances. Thus, the drama of the time started

propagating backward ideas and vulgarity. In 1914, Liu Jingruo, in charge of Xīn jù

tóngzhì huì新剧同志会 (New Dramatic Society), died due to illness and poverty.

Chūn liǔ shè春柳社 (Spring Willow Society) collapsed after his death. Reckless

invention in terms of script, low standard plots, and clumsy aesthetics were major

reasons for its decline. Hong Shen states that the decline of huaju started in 1913,

finally ending in 1917– 1918. He points out, ‘The so- called new drama, completely

collapsed. Drama and actors, both are trophy at the same time, and a failure’ (Shen

2003: 287).

Huaju and the New Culture Movement

The May Fourth Movement began on 4 May 1919 with a large demonstration in

Beijing over the Chinese government’s weak response to the Treaty of Versailles.

It was an anti- imperialist, cultural, and political movement. This flare- up worked

as a catalyst for the increasing participation of students, intellectuals, and others

in amateur drama. Chen Dabei, Ouyang Yuqian, and other dramatists organised

the Mínjiān jù shè民间剧社 (Popular Drama Society) and issued a manifesto in

which they declared that ‘theatre occupies an important place in modern society,

it is a wheel which impels society forward, and it is also an X- ray which seeks out

the basic faults of society’ (Mackerras 1983: 146). It is well known that the early

huajus of the century were mainly translated or adapted plots from Western writers.

Various schools of drama including realism, romanticism, symbolism, aestheticism,

expressionism, and futurism were also introduced into huaju with the wide range

of translated works. While the theme of individuality was popular during the 1920s,

this was also the period that witnessed the flourishing of various modernist styles,

such as aestheticism, symbolism, and expressionism.

One significant expressionist play during that period was Hong Shen’s Zhào

yánwáng赵阎王 (Yama Zhao). It was staged in 1923. It borrowed and adapted the

idea of O’Neill’s The Emperor Jones. It was an attempt by Hong Shen to expose the

wartime crimes with an expressionist technique. The quest for beauty and sen-

sual pleasure as against rigid moral codes provided new themes for experimenting

with aestheticism. Oscar Wilde was regarded as the perfect symbol of the age, and

translations of his works such as A Florentine Tragedy and Lady Windermere’s Fan

were published in Xīn qīngnián新青年 (The New Youth). His other works like The

Importance of Being Ernest and Salome were also translated. Apart from Wilde’s works,

D’Annunzio’s The Dead City, Maeterlinck’s The Blue Bird, Hauptmann’s The Sunken

Bell, Kaiser’s From Morn to Midnight, and O’Neill’s The Emperor Jones were some

other Western works that greatly influenced the huaju of the time.

According to Sòngchūnfǎng tǒngjì宋春舫统计 (Song Chunfang Report) of 1935,

more than 170– 180 Western works were translated and adapted into Chinese

during the 1920s. In 1921 alone, around 36 European plays of 25 writers from

six countries were translated (Huilin 2009). As stated in Zheng Zhenduo’s book

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Xiànzài de fānyì jiè现在的翻译界 (Recent Translation World), within three years

from 1918 to 1921, 33 plays were translated. As reported by Tian Han, from 1919

to 1924, around 81 plays of 46 writers were translated (Huilin 2009). These data

highlight the fact that the May Fourth Movement introduced an era of translated

Western plays. These translated works included playwrights from countries with

rich cultural legacies such as Britain, France, Germany, the USSR, and the US

as well as from smaller countries like the Czech Republic, the Philippines, Chile,

and Serbia. Some well- known writers whose works were translated during the

period were Shakespeare, Moliere, Goethe, Hugo, Schiller, Ibsen, G. B. Shaw,

Anton Chekhov, Horatio Nelson, John Hopkins, Maurice Maeterlinck, Oscar

Wilde, Alexandre Dumas, and August Strindberg. Shakespeare was the first among

Western playwrights to be introduced to Chinese people in 1856 through classical

Chinese. After the May Fourth Movement, Shakespeare’s works were translated

into vernacular language. At the same time that Shakespeare was translated, the

French playwright Moliere’s comedies were introduced through the translations

of The Mad (Guài lìn rén怪吝人), Tartuffe (Wèijūnzǐ伪君子), The Flying Doctor

(Fēngliú yīshēng风流医生), The Imaginary Invalid (Xiǎngxiàng de bìng想象的病),

The Pretentious Young Ladies (Zhuāngqiāng zuòshì装腔作势), The School of Wives

(Fùnǚ xuéxiào妇女学校), which were welcomed in China. The works of leading

exponents of romanticism such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Mark Twain, and

Victor Hugo also entered China.

The New Culture Movement was the first political incident that helped huaju

in its thematic growth. It was a cultural outbreak against the traditional culture

and for Western science, democracy, and culture, which inspired a new direction

for huaju. A special issue in the leading magazine of that time Xīn qīngnián新青

年 (New Youth)5 was devoted to Ibsen in 1918. One essay written by Hu Shi under

the title ‘Yì bo shēng zhǔyì’ 易卜生主义 (Ibsenism) was also published in the

issue. This marked the arrival of Ibsenism6 in China. Ibsen’s plays cater to indi-

vidual freedom in search of truth. When Ibsen was introduced in China, plays that

engaged with social problems attracted immediate attention. The social criticism

in his plays appealed to the youth and intellectuals of China at the time. His style

and content offered a strong alternative that echoed with the desire for breaking

away with the old and creating a new ethos with democracy and individualism at

its core. These characteristics of Ibsen’s plays were appropriated as an ideology by

Chinese dramatists to an extent that it became an ideology of theatre in China. Hu

Shi adapted the one- act play Zhōngshēn dàshì终身大事 (The Greatest Even in Life)

from Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. This original play had such a deep impact that there

were around nine different versions of A Doll’s House that were staged in China.

In the 1920s, a number of huajus were staged in which a brave and rebellious

woman was in the lead role. Such huajus end with the heroine leaving home and

were grouped as Chinese ‘Nora plays’ (Chengzhou 2004: 14). Nora is a symbol of

individuality, woman’s liberation, and spiritual rebellion for the young generation

against patriarchy. Famous Nora plays in Chinese huaju history are Pōfù泼妇 (The

Shrew) by Ouyang Yuqian (1922), Zhuōwén jūn卓文君 (Zhuo Wenjun) by Guo

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Moruo (1924), and Qīngchūn zhī mèng青春之梦 (Dream of the Youth) by Zhang

Wentian (1927). These plays are based on the plot of a daring and rebellious woman

revolting against the old traditions that suppressed women. As was the need of the

hour, these huajus became popular.

Transformation of Huaju: From an Art Form to an Agent

of Change

In the beginning, huaju arrived as a direct import from foreign countries, which

later started raising social issues. The New Culture Movement and its demand for

use of vernacular language and its opposition to traditional culture helped in the

consolidation of huaju as an art form. During the War of Resistance against Japan,

this popular art form was used to create awareness among the masses, which in turn

helped huaju to grow deep roots in society and thus become an important tool of

propaganda. As a large majority of the Chinese population was not educated, it was

the need of the hour to find and use a popular art form that was easy to understand

and could overcome the barriers of literacy and other socio- cultural disadvantages.

This unique demand of the time was fulfilled by huaju, and thus it played a cru-

cial role in bringing socio- political changes. The New Culture Movement, with

the Marxist theory of literature and art at its core, helped huaju in its growth.

Interestingly, other schools such as aestheticism, symbolism, and expressionism

also emerged in this period, which practitioners of literature and art drew from.

This plurality is a significant hallmark of the May Fourth Period. This plurality

was seeking social reform and was the catalyst for a socio- political rupture (from

feudal culture), with deep political implications in the long run. As soon as the

Communist Party of China (CPC) was established in 1921, the party was quick to

see the value of drama for its own cause. At the time of the United Front between

the CPC and the Kuomintang (KMT) from 1924 to 1927, troupes were organised

to perform on relevant revolutionary themes. In celebration of May Day 1926,

30– 40 CPC members performed a play called Èrqī xuè二七血 (Blood of February

Seventh) based on the February Seventh Massacre7 of 1923 when troops of the war-

lord Wu Peifu crushed the great Beijing– Hankou Railway strike. On 7 February

1923, the warlord Wu Peifu ordered a violent crackdown against unarmed workers

striking on the Beijing– Hankou Railway. The surprise assault resulted in 39 deaths,

representing the first mass violence against the nascent CPC. In the period from

the birth of the CPC until the onset of the Anti- Japanese War, huaju was increas-

ingly used to mobilise the working class as well as other sections of the proletariat

(peasants, young bourgeoisie, intellectuals, etc.). After the famous Yan’an Forum, the

propaganda department of the CPC further staged huaju productions, for instance,

Liúhúlán刘胡兰 (Liu Hulan), Xuè yǔ lèi de chóuhèn血与泪的仇恨 (A Hatred of

Blood and Tears), Gōngdào màoyì公道贸易 (Fair Trade), and Wángkèqín duì王克勤

队 (Wang Keqin’s Squad) to fulfil its political objectives. This strong presence of

huaju and its role in the socio- political transformation of China testifies that huaju

evolved from a mere art form to an agent of change. This agent of change was then

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used by the CPC as a tool to extend its sphere of influence and ultimately in its

effort to capture political power.

Conclusion

The New Culture Movement (mid- 1910s– 1920s) played an important role in the

growth of huaju in China. Western political and cultural philosophy in the form

of individualism and democratic values depicted in huaju took centre stage in the

social life of ordinary Chinese people. The 1911 Revolution, though ushered in a

systematic change, was in effect more of a regime change, and it was unable to sat-

isfy numerous demands of the Chinese people. As a result, in 1919, the famous May

Fourth Movement took place in China. This movement was partly social, partly

cultural, and partly patriotic in nature, and demanded modernisation in different

aspects of life. It opposed the outdated moral values and advocated the redefining

of morality, attacked classical Chinese, and advocated the use of vernacular language.

It held the banner of democracy and science high in its approach. These changes

during the movement resulted in the emergence of a new literature, which affirmed

the place of huaju in Chinese society. The purpose of describing social realities

through huaju was to awaken the masses and call for the transformation of trad-

itional society. The appearance of a new dramatic literature increased the number of

amateur stages and the number of people engaged in spoken drama. This increasing

number of participation and more people getting engaged in theatre education at

different levels were the factors which marked its deep roots in society.

The CPC was established in 1921, and with its establishment, the awareness of

Chinese people about the socio- political condition of China manifested a gradual

change. Chinese history in this republican period witnessed a number of political

milestones, such as the Northern Expedition, the Nanchang Uprising, the Chinese

Civil War, the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the War of Resistance against Japan,

and the War of Liberation. These incidents found reflection in many productions

of huaju as it started raising political issues. It was this politicised huaju that proved

to be one of the keys to the success and rising popularity of the CPC. Huaju

now came closer to the masses as activists performed productions as propaganda

that was simple, direct, and thus effective. Many travelling drama troupes were

organised by the party to go into the interiors and educate the masses about its

ideals and fight against the enemies, be it the KMT or the Japanese. During the

War of Resistance against Japan, various student teams, amateur drama clubs, and

local drama troupes joined hands to bring awareness among the Chinese peasants.

The War of Resistance against Japan drastically changed the nature of huaju, as it

became the primary channel of communication with the broad masses of rural

people. Development and the use of this dramatic form by the party helped ensure

its victory over Japan and the KMT. Therefore, huaju has had an interesting his-

tory meandering through several twists and turns, all of which culminated in the

important role it played in the lives of the common Chinese people and of the

nation as a whole.

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Notes

1 The First Sino- Japanese War was fought between China and Japan from 1 August 1894

to 17 April 1895. It marked the emergence of Japan as a major power and demonstrated

the weakness of China. It was fought for supremacy over Korea, which at that time was

a tribute state under China. In 1895, the war stopped after the Treaty of Shimonoseki,

which recognised the independence of Korea, and China ceded Taiwan to Japan.

2 Sudo Sadanori introduced the heroic play in Japan. It was related to the reform movement

in Japan. The motto of these plays was to preach freedom and civil rights.

3 Xīnhài gémìng辛亥革命 or the Xinhai Revolution (1911– 1912) was a nationwide

revolution that overthrew the Qing government, following which China became a

republic.

4 The Second Revolution began on July 1913 when seven southern provinces rebelled

against the KMT leader Yuan Shikai. Yuan’s abuse of power was the main reason behind

this as the revolutionary armies were banned after the establishment of the Republic

of China and many officers felt that they were not compensated for toppling the

Qing rule.

5 The journal Xīn qīngnián新青年 (New Youth), published in 1915, was the first magazine

of the New Culture Movement. It was edited by Chen Duxiu initially and then later by

Hu Shi, Qian Xuantong, Li Dazhao, and Zhou Zuoren, who were professors of Peking

University and writers of the new vernacular literature.

6 The dramatic practice or purpose characteristic of the writings of Henrik Ibsen (1828–

1906), Norwegian poet and dramatist, whose best- known plays such as A Doll’s House,

Pillars of Society, Ghosts, and Enemy of the People deal with conventional hypocrisies and

social problems.

7 During this time, labour unions started to grow for the protection of the rights of labourers.

The Beijing– Hankou workers strike of 1923 is known as the February Seventh Massacre.

The CPC gained massive support as the organiser of the strike. Although the strike failed,

it paved the path for common people to understand that feudal warlords and imperialism

would not be able to serve people’s interests.

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